What makes up mexicans

When considering these racial identities through grandparents, the share of Latino adults with these backgrounds increases. These results shed light onto the multidimensionality of racial identity among Latinos and the challenges in capturing Hispanic racial identity through a standard race question.

On the one hand, the NSL directly asked Hispanic adults whether they considered themselves to be mixed race, as mentioned in the chapter and in the box in this chapter. It also captured any other race responses given by the interviewee. Which of the following describes your race? Interviewers accepted up to four responses. The survey provider SSRS and Pew Research Center reviewed and verified these classifications and corrected some responses to the race question as needed.

In a few cases, when a verbatim response captured by interviewers was not clear, Pew Research used other survey questions, such as whether people considered themselves to be mixed race Q54 and whether the respondent had a mixed Hispanic and non-Hispanic background through their parents and grandparents Q52a, Q52b and Q53 to classify them as mixed-race or not. Say "Alexa, enable the Pew Research Center flash briefing".

It organizes the public into nine distinct groups, based on an analysis of their attitudes and values. Even in a polarized era, the survey reveals deep divisions in both partisan coalitions. Use this tool to compare the groups on some key topics and their demographics. Pew Research Center now uses as the last birth year for Millennials in our work. President Michael Dimock explains why.

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts. Newsletters Donate My Account. Research Topics.

Identifying Multiracial Hispanics As noted, multiracial identity among Hispanics can be defined in two ways. They compared their genetic map to tests of lung function as measured by the volume of air a person can expel in one second or FEV1. They found a 7 percent difference in baseline FEV1 as they moved from populations in the western state of Sonora to Yucatan in the east.

The differences hold even though most Mexicans are mestizos. Their specific origin — not just a broad racial group — may provide crucial pointers. IE 11 is not supported. C Differences in levels of European ancestry of African Americans red , from each state. States with fewer than ten individuals are excluded in gray. States with fewer than 20 individuals are excluded in gray. Mean estimates of African, Native American, and European ancestry are shown.

Relative increase on the X chromosome is calculated as the absolute difference, X chromosome estimate minus genome-wide estimate, divided by the genome-wide estimate. We used the lengths of segments of European, African, and Native American ancestry to estimate a best-fit model of admixture history among these populations for African Americans Figure S3.

We estimate that initial admixture between Europeans and Native Americans occurred 12 generations ago, followed by subsequent African admixture 6 generations ago, consistent with other admixture inference methods dating African American admixture.

A sex bias in African American ancestry, with greater male European and female African contributions, has been suggested through mtDNA, Y chromosome, and autosomal studies. Latinos encompass nearly all possible combinations of African, Native American, and European ancestries, with the exception of individuals who have a mix of African and Native American ancestry without European ancestry see Figures S4 A and S1.

On average, we estimate that Latinos in the US carry We find the highest levels of estimated Native American ancestry in self-reported Latinos from states in the Southwest, especially those bordering Mexico Figure 2 C. We find the highest mean levels of African ancestry in Latinos living in or born in states in the South, especially Louisiana, the Midwest, and Atlantic Figure 2 A. Further stratification of individuals by their self-reported population affiliation e.

Differences in mean levels of African A , European B , and Native American C ancestry in Latinos from each state is shown by shade of blue, red, and orange, respectively. Admixture date estimates for Latino admixture suggest that Native American and European mixture occurred first, about 11 generations ago, followed by African admixture 7 generations ago.

We inferred elevated African and Native American ancestry on the X chromosome, corresponding to higher female ancestry contributions from both Africans and Native Americans. We find that many self-reported European Americans, predominantly those living west of the Mississippi River, carry Native American ancestry Figure 3 B.

A The geographic distribution of self-reported European Americans with African ancestry. Consistent with previous anecdotal results, 32 the frequency of European American individuals who carry African ancestry varies strongly by state and region of the US Figure 3 A. We estimate that a substantial fraction, at least 1. Using a less conservative threshold, approximately 3. Logistic regression of self-identified European Americans and African Americans reveals that the proportion of African ancestry predicts self-reported ancestry significantly, with a coefficient of For a full characterization of terms and logistic models, see Table S6 and Figure S9.

Each vertical bar corresponds to the individuals that carry that bin of ancestry, and is colored by the proportion of African American and European American identities. Proportions are estimated from absolute numbers of individuals, not scaled by total cohort size.

Pie charts are omitted for bins where there were no individuals with those corresponding levels of Native American and African ancestry. Fitting a model of European and Native American admixture followed later by African admixture, we find the best fit with initial Native American and European admixture about 12 generations ago and subsequent African gene flow about 4 generations ago.

Non-European ancestry in European Americans follows a sex bias in admixture contributions from males and females, as seen in African Americans and Latinos. The ratio between X chromosome and genome-wide Native American ancestry estimates in European Americans shows greater Native American female and higher European male ancestry contributions Tables 1 and S4.

This increase suggests female-African and male-European sex bias in European Americans that follows the same direction as in African Americans and Latinos, with greater male European and female African and Native American contributions. We find that levels of Native American and African ancestry in 23andMe customers in each state are significantly correlated with the proportion of African Americans and Latinos in each state Figures S11—S We show that positions of segments of non-European ancestry start uniformly across the genome see Figure S Although some regions, including the HLA region containing the MHC complex on chromosome 6, show higher ancestry switches reflecting difficulties in assignment because of genetic diversity as likewise seen in African Americans and Latinos; Figures S16 and S17 , the majority of segments are uniformly distributed.

We find very low levels of African and Native American ancestry in Europeans with four grandparents born in Europe. We estimate that only 0. These levels are substantially lower than the 3. Furthermore, for most European countries we observed no individuals with substantial non-European ancestry, and the presence of individuals with African and Native American ancestry is limited to countries that had major ports in the Atlantic trade and were known to have been highly connected to the trans-Atlantic slave trade.

Excluding countries that had major and minor ports in the Atlantic with strong connections to the slave trade namely Portugal, Spain, France, and United Kingdom and Malta, which has been the site of migrations from Africa and the Middle East, we obtain a data set of 9, Europeans, where we find African and Native American ancestry is virtually absent, with only 0.

The frequency of Native American mtDNA haplogroups in European Americans and African Americans correlate with our estimates of genome-wide ancestry in European Americans and African Americans and are found in appreciable fractions of individuals who are estimated to carry Native American ancestry.

The frequencies of haplogroups are shown in Table S8. These haplogroups are virtually absent in individuals with four grandparents from a European country 21 individuals out of 15, Furthermore, the majority of these Native American haplogroups in Europeans are found in individuals from Spain. Though it is possible these represent non-Native American haplogroups, prior literature and studies of genetic, archaeological, and paleontological evidence suggest that these haplogroups have Native American origins and is evidence of gene flow from the Americas to Spain.

Excluding Spain, Native-American-specific haplogroups are detected in fewer than 0. The ancestries of 23andMe customers, and therefore the demographics of the database used for this study, largely reflect the demographics of the US, as tallied in the US census.

Our study considers three cohorts that comprise the three largest self-identified groups in the US, which are likewise well represented in the 23andMe database. In this study, we focus on the distribution of European, African, and Native American ancestries and European subpopulation ancestries.

At present, we are unable to delve deeper into the complexity of, and subancestries within, Native American and West African populations. Our resolution reflects the current availability of reference data sets from different regions. However, we emphasize that these groups and ancestries are only a fraction of the diversity found within individuals living in the US, and as data set sizes grow, future work should extend to include analyses of other worldwide ancestries and populations and their distributions across the US.

Reflected in these ancestry patterns are migration routes, such as the trans-Atlantic slave trade that brought Africans through important Southern seaports as documented online in American FactFinder and American Community Survey Summary File. Though mean estimates of Native American ancestry are low, many African Americans carry detectable levels of Native American ancestry.

Consistent with historical narratives and family histories, our estimate suggests that one in every five African Americans carries Native American ancestry, a higher rate than we detected in self-reported European Americans.

Even excluding individuals with no African ancestry, which are probably the result of survey errors, we still estimate a higher European, and corresponding lower African, mean genetic ancestry proportion in 23andMe African Americans compared to previous studies of African Americans.

A significant difference between the 23andMe cohort of African Americans and many groups previously studied is geographic sampling. Our cohort reflects heavier sampling of individuals living in or born in California and New York, probably driven by population density as well as awareness of genetic testing or 23andMe. Both are regions where African Americans have lower mean African ancestry than other studies of African Americans, which are often drawn from locations in the South.

However, participation in 23andMe is not free and requires online access, so therefore it is important to note that other social, cultural, or economic factors might interact to affect ancestry proportions of those individuals who choose to participate in 23andMe. Our admixture dates for African Americans provide evidence that African and European mixture occurred prior to , suggesting that gene flow between these groups might predate the Great Migration of African Americans from the South into the North beginning around , though more complex models that capture more continuous gene flow are needed to resolve African and European mixture timing.

We estimated that Iberian ancestry composes as much as a third of the European ancestry in Latinos in Florida, New Mexico, and other parts of the Southwest, probably reflecting either early Spanish influence and rule in these regions or recent immigration from Latin America, which might also be associated with higher levels of Iberian ancestry in New York and New Jersey. Regions with higher Iberian ancestry also correspond to regions with greater Native American ancestry; disentangling whether higher levels of Native American ancestry in the Southwest reflects the legacy of indigenous Native American ancestors or is the result of recent Latino immigrants into the Southwest might be possible through future studies of admixture dating or more Native American subpopulation reference data.

Our estimated rates of non-European ancestry in European Americans suggest that more than six million Americans, who self-identify as European, might carry African ancestry. Regional differences in European subpopulation ancestry across states reflect known major historical migrations from Europe.

Inferred Eastern European ancestry is found at its highest levels in Illinois, Michigan, and Pennsylvania, potentially stemming from immigration during the late 19 th and early 20 th centuries, settling in metropolitan areas in the Northeast and Midwest.

Inferred Iberian ancestry, found overall at lower mean proportions, still represents a measurable ancestry component in Florida, Louisiana, California, and Nevada, and might point to the early Spanish rule and colonization of the Americas. The distributions of the European subpopulation ancestries in European Americans illustrate that the distribution of within-European ancestry is not homogenous among individuals from different states, and instead, reflects differences in population migrations and settlement patterns across the US.

We find evidence that sex-biased admixture processes are widespread in US history in European Americans as well as in African American and Latino populations. Estimates of proportions of males and females from each ancestral population Table S4 suggest that under a simple demographic model of admixture, European Americans might have ten times as many female Native American ancestors as male, and African Americans might have four times as many female Native American ancestors as male.

Sex bias in ancestry contributions might have been driven by unbalanced sex ratios in immigration frontier settings, 76 exploitation, 77 or other social factors. Several lines of evidence suggest that Native American and African segments represent true signals of Native American and African introgression that occurred after the transcontinental migrations beginning in the s. Validation of our self-reported survey data across two independent surveys shows that self-reported ancestry consistency is remarkably high.

African ancestry in European Americans is not likely to be driven by survey errors because the number of European Americans with African ancestry is ten times larger than our estimates of survey error rates. Furthermore, the ancestry profiles of self-reported European Americans with African ancestry are distinct from all other cohorts: their African ancestry is much lower than for a random sample of African Americans, and the majority of these individuals do not carry any appreciable amount of Native American ancestry, distinguishing their ancestry profiles from Latinos see Figure S1 C.

A potential source of bias in our estimates is from errors in the ancestry inference algorithm. The inferred segments of African and Native American are uniformly distributed across the genome. Lastly, our recent dates for admixture suggest that introgression probably occurred in the Americas within the last years. Hence, our estimates do not support that the African ancestry in European Americans stems from ancient population events that predate the migrations to the Americas.

For example, gene flow from Africa coinciding with the Moor invasion of the Mediterranean might have introduced African ancestry into the ancestral population of some European Americans. Though such ancient events would probably not lead to inferred African ancestry because our supervised learning algorithm would apply a European label to such segments, it is possible that European population substructure could lead to inferred segments of African ancestry in some European Americans that derive from older historical admixture events, which are not seen in modern Europeans.

However, these events would lead to admixture or introgression of segments several hundred or thousand years old, and our admixture dates for both Native American ancestry and African ancestry point to gene flow within the last 20 generations and is not consistent with any known historical migrations within Europe during this time period.

Correlations between state population proportions and mean ancestry proportions suggest that the numbers of African and Native American individuals in a state might have shaped the ancestries of present-day individuals. For African Americans, the states with the highest mean levels of African ancestry, such as South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida are not those with the highest proportions of African Americans.

Given the highly significant statistics in European Americans, surprisingly, in African Americans, the correlation of African ancestry with proportions of African Americans is only marginally significant p value 0. The correlation of Native American ancestry in African Americans with Latino state population proportion also has a marginal p value of 0.

Not all correlations are strongly significant, suggesting that other social or cultural factors influenced levels of ancestry, especially in African Americans. The transitions between Latino, African American, and European American self-reported identity by proportions of African and Native American ancestry illustrate both the complexity of how one self identifies as well as the overlapping ancestry profiles among groups Figure 5 B.

This work demonstrates that the legacy of population migrations and interactions over the last several hundred years is visible in the genetic ancestry of modern individuals living in the US. Our results suggest that genetic ancestry can be leveraged to augment historical records and inform cultural processes shaping modern populations. Though the majority of European Americans in our study did not carry Native American or African ancestry, even a small proportion of this large population that carry non-European ancestry translates into millions of European Americans who carry African and Native American ancestry.

Our results suggest that the early US history, beginning in the 17 th century around 12 generations ago , might have been a time of many population interactions resulting in admixture. Large sample sizes, high-density genotype data, and accurate and robust local ancestry estimates allowed us to discern subtle differences in genetic ancestry.

In spite of present-day high mobility of individuals, the genetic ancestry of present-day individuals recapitulates historical migration events, known settlement patterns, and admixture processes. Our findings can inform medical genetic studies. Introgressed Native American and African haplotypes in European Americans might have implications for studies of complex diseases, especially for diseases that vary in prevalence among ancestral populations, can produce subtle population structure that should be carefully controlled for in GWASs, and might impact the distribution of rare variants in studies of whole-genome sequence.

Our results also suggest new avenues for research, such as the potential for including European Americans in admixture mapping. We thank the customers of 23andMe who answered surveys and participated in this research. We are grateful to Dr. Jeffrey C. Long at the University of New Mexico, Dr. We thank Nick Patterson and Priya Moorjani for helpful statistical discussions on f statistics.

Of course, all mistakes and inaccuracies are our own. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Am J Hum Genet. Durand , 2 J. Mountain 2.

Eric Y. Durand 2 23andMe, Inc. Michael Macpherson. Joanna L. Mountain 2 23andMe, Inc. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Katarzyna Bryc: moc. Received Sep 17; Accepted Nov This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Document S2.

Article plus Supplemental Data. Abstract Over the past years, North America has been the site of ongoing mixing of Native Americans, European settlers, and Africans brought largely by the trans-Atlantic slave trade , shaping the early history of what became the United States. Introduction Over the last several hundred years, the United States has been the site of ongoing mixing of peoples of continental populations that were previously separated by geography.

Genotyping Participants were genotyped as described previously. Research Cohorts 23andMe customers were invited to fill out web-based questionnaires, including questions on ancestry and ethnicity, on state of birth, and current zip code of residence. Self-Reported Ancestry It is important to note that ancestry, ethnicity, identity, and race are complex labels that result both from visible traits, such as skin color, and from cultural, economic, geographical, and social factors.

Validation of Self-Reported Identity Survey Results To verify that our self-reported ethnicities were reliable, we examined the consistency of ethnicity survey responses when individuals completed both ancestry and ethnicity surveys. Geographic Location Collection Self-reported state-of-birth survey data was available for 47, customers of 23andMe.

Ancestry Analyses Ancestry Composition We apply Ancestry Composition, a three-step pipeline that efficiently and accurately identifies the ancestral origin of chromosomal segments in admixed individuals, which is described in Durand et al. Generating the Distribution of Ancestry Tracts We generate ancestry segments as defined as continuous blocks of ancestry, estimating the best guess of ancestry at each window to define segments of each ancestry.

Sex Bias in Ancestry Contributions Sex bias in ancestry contributions, often assessed through ancestry of mtDNA and Y chromosome haplogroups, is also manifested in unequal estimates of ancestry proportions on the X chromosome, which has an inheritance pattern that differs between males and females.

Logistic Regression Modeling of Self-Identity We examine the probabilistic relationship between self-identity and genetically inferred ancestry.

Validation of Non-European Ancestry in African Americans and European Americans Although our Ancestry Composition estimates are well calibrated and have been shown to accurately estimate African, European, and Native American ancestry in tests of precision and recall, 33 we were concerned that low levels of non-European ancestry in European Americans that we detected might represent an artifact of Ancestry Composition.

Comparison with Genomes Project Consensus Estimates Comparisons of our estimates with those published by the Genomes Consortium show the high consistency across populations and individuals. Estimates of African and Native American Ancestry in Europeans We looked at whether all individuals who are expected to carry solely European ancestry also have similar rates of detection of non-European ancestry.

Distribution of Ancestry Segment Start Positions Regions of the genome that have structural variation or show strong linkage disequilibrium LD have been shown both to confound admixture mapping and to influence the detection of population substructure in studies using Principal Components Analysis PCA. Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Figure 2.

Figure 3. Figure 4. Figure 5. Correlations with Population Proportions We find that levels of Native American and African ancestry in 23andMe customers in each state are significantly correlated with the proportion of African Americans and Latinos in each state Figures S11—S Discussion Selection of Populations The ancestries of 23andMe customers, and therefore the demographics of the database used for this study, largely reflect the demographics of the US, as tallied in the US census.

Patterns of Genetic Ancestry of Self-Reported Latinos We estimated that Iberian ancestry composes as much as a third of the European ancestry in Latinos in Florida, New Mexico, and other parts of the Southwest, probably reflecting either early Spanish influence and rule in these regions or recent immigration from Latin America, which might also be associated with higher levels of Iberian ancestry in New York and New Jersey.